Sport in Society:
Issues & Controversies
Sports and Children:
Are Organized Programs Worth the Effort?
Origins of Organized
Youth Sports
•Organized youth sports
emerged in the 20th Century
•The first programs focused
on “masculinizing” boys
•Organized youth sports grew
rapidly in many industrialized countries after World War II
•Programs in the
•Girls’ interests generally
were ignored
Social Changes Related to the Growth of Organized Youth
Sports
•Increase in working
families
•New definitions of “good
parent”
•Growing belief that
informal activities lead to trouble for kids
•Growing belief that the
world is dangerous for children
•Increased visibility of
high-performance and professional sports in society
Major Trends in
Youth Sports Today
•Organized programs have
become increasingly privatized
•Organized programs
increasingly emphasize the “performance ethic”
•An increase in “elite
training” facilities
•Increased participation in
“alternative sports”
Youth Sports:
Types of Sponsors
nPublic,
tax-supported community recreation programs
nPublic
non-profit community organizations
nPrivate
nonprofit sport organizations
nPrivate
commercial clubs
Privatized
Youth Sport Programs
•Growth is associated with
the decline in publicly funded programs
•Most common in middle- and
upper-middle income areas
–May reproduce economic and
ethnic inequalities in society
•May not be committed to
gender equity
–Private programs are not
accountable in the same way as public programs
The “Performance Ethic”
•Refers to emphasizing
measured outcomes as indicators of the quality of sport experiences
•Fun = becoming better
•Emphasized in private
programs
•Related to parental notions
of investing in their children’s future
Elite Sport Training Programs
•Most common in private,
commercial programs
•Emphasize the potential for
children to gain material rewards through sports
•Children often “work” long
hours and become like “laborers,” but programs are not governed by child labor
laws
•Raise ethical issues about
adult-child relationships
New Interests in
Alternative Sports
•A response to highly
structured, adult-controlled organized programs
•Revolve around desires to
be expressive and spontaneous
•May have high injury rates
and patterns of exclusion related to gender and social class
•Are being appropriated by
large corporations for advertising purposes
Different Experiences
Formal Sports Emphasize:
•Formal rules
•Set positions
•Systematic guidance by
adults
•Status and outcomes
Informal Sports Emphasize:
•Action
•Personal involvement
•Challenging experiences
•Reaffirming friendships
Different Outcomes
Formal Sports Emphasize:
•Relationships with authority figures
•Learning rules and
strategies
•Rule-governed teamwork
& achievement
Informal Sports Emphasize:
•Interpersonal &
decision-making skills
•Cooperation
•Improvisation
•Problem solving
When Are Children Ready to Play Organized, Competitive
Sports?
•Prior to age 12, children
don’t have the ability to fully understand competitive team sports
–They play
“beehive soccer”
•Children must lean how to
cooperate before they can learn how to compete
•Team sports require the use
of a “third party perspective”
–Role Taking
Ability
–Game Stage
Developmental level
What Are the Dynamics of Family Relationships in Youth
Sports?
•Sports have the potential
to bring families together
•Being together does not
always mean that close communication occurs
•Children may feel pressure
from parents
•Parent labor in youth
sports often reproduces gendered logic ideas
–work
–family
How Do Social Factors Influence Youth Sport Experiences?
•Participation opportunities
vary by social class
•Encouragement often varies
by gender and ability/disability
•Self perceptions and the
social consequences of participation vary by:
–social class
–gender
–race/ethnicity
–ability/disability
–sexuality
Recommendations for Changing Informal & Alternative
Sports
•Make play spaces more safe
and accessible to as many children as possible
–Be sensitive to class and
gender
•Provide indirect guidance
without being controlling
•Treat sport as a worthwhile
site for facing challenges
–developing competence
Recommendations for Changing Organized Sports
nIncrease action
nIncrease
personal involvement
nFacilitate
close scores and realistic challenges
nFacilitate
friendship formation and maintenance
Recommendations for Changing High-performance Programs
nEstablish
policies, procedures, and rules to account for:
–the rights of
children participants
–the interests
of children participants
nCreate less
controlling environments
–to promote
growth
–to promote
development
–to promote
empowerment
Prospects for Change
•Often subverted when
priority is given to efficiency and organization
–over age-based
developmental concerns
•May be subverted by
national organizations concerned with standardizing programs
•May be subverted by adult
administrators with vested interests in the status quo
Coaching Education Programs
•Are useful when they
provide coaches with information on
–Dealing with children
safely and responsibly
–Organizing practices and
teaching skills
•Are problematic when they
foster a “techno-science” approach to controlling children
–Creating “sports efficiency
experts” should not be the goal
Deviance in Sports:
Is It Out of Control?
Problems Faced When Studying Deviance in Sports
nForms & causes of deviance are diverse
nNo single theory can explain all
nSports behavior may be deviant in other settings
nSports often involves unquestioned acceptance of norms
–rarely the rejection of norms
nTraining & performance have become medicalized
Using Functionalist Theory to Define Deviance
lDeviance involves
a rejecting of accepted goals
lOr rejecting the means of achieving goals in society
lConformity is equated with morality
lDeviance is caused by faulty socialization
vBy inconsistencies in the social system
lDeviance is controlled by getting tough
vBy enforcing more
rules more strictly
Using Conflict Theory
to Define Deviance
lDeviance involves behavior that interferes with the interests of those with economic power
lThe behavior of those who lack power is more likely to be labeled as deviant
lThose who deviate often are victims of exploitation in a system characterized by inequalities
lThe problem of deviance
will be minimal when power is equally distributed in society
Using Interactionist & Critical Theories to Define Deviance
lMost deviance in sports is not due to the moral bankruptcy of athletes
lMuch deviance in sports involves over conformity to established norms in sports
lSport deviance
must be understood in terms of the normative context of sport cultures and the
emphasis on “the sport ethic”
The Sport Ethic
Four Norms of the Sport Ethic
lAn athlete
makes sacrifices for “the game”
lAn athlete strives
for distinction
lAn athlete
accepts risks and plays through pain
lAn athlete
accepts no limits in the pursuit of possibilities
Why Do Athletes Engage in Deviant Over- Conformity?
Two reasons for over-conformity:
lSports are so exhilarating and thrilling that athletes want to play, and they will do almost anything to continue to do so
lBeing selected by
coaches and managers is more likely when athletes over conform to the sport
ethic
Athletes Most Likely to Over- Conform to the Sport Ethic
nThose who have low self-esteem
vEager to be accepted by their peers
vWilling to sacrifices what they think others want them to
nThose who see achievements in sport as their only way to get ahead
vmake a name
vbecome important
in the world
Deviant Over-Conformity
and Group Dynamics
Following the Norms of the Sport Ethic
Special Bonds Among Athletes
Hubris
Social Processes in Elite
Power & Performance Sports
nBond athletes in ways that normalize over conformity to the sport ethic
nSeparate athletes from the rest to inspire awe and admiration among community members
nLead athletes to
develop HUBRIS (a sense of arrogance, separateness, and superiority)
Hypotheses About Deviance Among Athletes
Deviance becomes more likely when
lSocial bonds
normalize risk taking
lAthletes are
separated from the rest of the community
lAthletes
develop extreme degrees of hubris
lWhen people in
the community see athletes as being special
Controlling Deviant Over-Conformity in Sports
Four ways to control deviant over-conformity:
lLearn to identify the forms and dynamics of over-conformity among athletes
lRaise critical questions about the meaning, organization, and purpose of sports
lCreate norms in sports that discourage over- conformity to the sport ethic
lHelp athletes to
learn to strike a balance between accepting and questioning rules and norms in
their sports
Research on Deviance
Among Athletes
On the Field Deviance
nCheating, dirty play, fighting, & violence are less common today than in the past
nThis historical
finding contradicts popular perceptions.
nMany people
think deviance is more common today
vMore
rules than ever before
vExpectations
for conformity are greater.
Research on Deviance
Among Athletes
Off the Field Deviance
nAthletes do not have higher delinquency rates
nData on academic cheating is inconclusive
nAthletes have higher rates of alcohol use
nFelony rates among adult athletes do not seem to be out of control
nBUT they do constitute a problem (see Ch. 7)
Is Sport Participation
a Cure for Deviant Behavior?
Research suggests that organized sport might
reduce deviance if:
lA philosophy of nonviolence
lRespect for self and others
lThe importance of fitness and control over self
lConfidence in physical skills
lA sense of
responsibility
DON’T FORGET
Athletes
are not the only ones in sports who engage in deviant behavior. Think of other
examples involving:
üCoaches
üParents
üSpectators
üAdministrators
üTeam owners
üAgents
Using Performance Enhancing Substances in Sports
•The use of performance enhancing substances occurs regularly in high performance sports
•Many cases of usage constitute a form of deviant over conformity
•Such substances will be used
as long as athletes believe they will enhance performance
Defining and Banning Performance Enhancing Substances
nDefining what
constitutes a “performance enhancing substance” is difficult
nDefining what
is natural or artificial is difficult
nDefining what
is fair when it comes to the use of science, medicine, & technology in
sports is difficult
nDetermining
what is dangerous to health is difficult
nStudying and
testing for substances is constrained by ethical and legal factors
Eight Reasons Why Substance Use
So Prevalent Today?
lThe high stakes in sports have fueled research and development of substances
lFascination with the use of technology to push human limits
lThe rationalization of the body
lHeavy emphasis on self-medication
lChanging gender relations
Why Is Substance Use
So Prevalent Today?
lThe organization of power and performance sports (must win to continue to play)
lCoaches, sponsors, administrators, and fans clearly encourage most forms of deviant over-conformity
lThe social
structure of elite sports (control over body and conformity to
demands of coaches)
Arguments Against Testing
nTesting will never be able to identify all substances athletes use to enhance performance
nAthletes and substance manufacturers can stay one step ahead of the testers
nMandatory testing,
testing without cause, and using blood and tissue violates ideas about rights
to privacy in many cultures
Arguments for Testing
nTo be meaningful, sport performances must involve natural abilities
nDrug use destroys the basis for competition by subverting fairness
nDrug use threatens the health and well-being of athletes
nDrug use is
immoral and must be stopped
Controlling Substance Use:
Where to Start (I)
nCritically examine the hypocrisy in elite sports
nEstablish rules indicating that risks to health are undesirable and unnecessary in sports
nEstablish rules stating that injured athletes must be independently certified as “well” before they may play
nEducate young
athletes to define courage and discipline in ways that promote health
Controlling Substance Use:
Where to Start (II)
nEstablish a code of ethics for sport scientists
nMake drug education part of deviance and health education
ØCreate norms
regulating use of technology
ØCritically
examine values and norms in sports
ØRedefine
meaning of achievement
ØTeach athletes
to think critically
ØProvide
accurate and current information to parents, coaches, and athletes
Violence in Sports:
How Does It Affect Our Lives?
Definition of Violence
The use of
excessive force that causes or has the potential to cause harm or destruction
nViolence is not
always illegal or disapproved
nIt may be
praised and lauded as necessary
nWhen violence
involves widespread rejection of norms, it may signal anarchy
nWhen violence
involves extreme over-conformity to norms, it may signal fascism
Definition of Aggression
Verbal or
physical behavior grounded in an intent to dominate, control, or do harm to
another person
nAggression is
not the same as assertiveness, competitiveness, or trying hard
nIntimidation
refers to words, gestures, and actions that threaten violence or aggression
Violence in Sports History
nFigurational research shows that violence was
more severe in the past
nOn the field
& off the field
nRates of sports
violence have not automatically increased over time
nViolence in
sports remains a crucial social issue today
nSports violence
can serve to reproduce an ideology of male privilege
Types of
On-the-field Violence
•Brutal body contact
•Borderline violence
•Quasi-criminal violence
•Criminal violence
Violence As Deviant Over
Conformity to the Sport Ethic (I)
nCoaches may
expect players to use violence
nViolence often
attracts media attention
nPlayers may not
like violence, even though most accept it as part of the game
nQuasi and
criminal violence are routinely rejected by athletes and spectators
Violence As Deviant Over-
Conformity to the Sport Ethic (II)
nViolence may be
related to insecurities in high performance sports
nExpressions of
violence are related to gender, but not limited to men
nPhysicality
creates drama and excitement, strong emotions, and special bonds among all
athletes, male and female
Commercialization and Violence
nSome athletes
are paid to do violence
nCommercialization
and money expand the visibility of violence in sports, and violent discourse in
and about sports
nViolence is not
caused by TV and money – it existed long before TV coverage and big salaries
Violence and Masculinity
nViolence is
grounded in general cultural norms
nViolence in
sports is not limited to men
nPlaying power
and performance sports often are ways to prove masculinity
Violence, Masculinity,
Social Class, & Race
nAmong men from
low-income backgrounds, violence may be perceived to bring respect
nBlack men may
use violence to exploit white stereotypes
Violence Is Institutionalized
in Some Sports
nIn non-contact
sports, violence is usually limited to using violent images in talk
nIn contact
men’s sports, players learn to use violence as a strategy
nEnforcers &
goons are paid to do violence
nIn women’s
contact sports, violence may be used as a strategy, but not to prove femininity
Pain and Injury As the
Price of Violence
nA popular
paradox in today’s sports: People accept violence while being concerned about
injuries caused by violence
nDisabling
injuries caused by violence in some sports are serious problems
nDominant ideas
about masculinity are related to high injury rates in men’s sports
Controlling
On-the-field Violence
nBrutal body
contact is the most difficult form of violence to control
nMost injuries
occur on “legal hits”
The most effective strategies might involve:
nSuspensions for
players
nFines for team
owners
Off-the-field Violence
nCarryover data
are inconclusive
nAssault and
sexual assault rates among male, heterosexual athletes are a serious problem
nThese behaviors
are a serious problem in society as a whole
nDebates about
whether rates are higher among athletes distract attention from the problem of
violence in culture
Hypotheses About Male Athletes’
Violence Against Women
Violence is related to
•Support from fellow
athletes for using physical force as a strategy
•Perceived cultural support
for domination as a basis for status & identity among men
•Deviant over-conformity to
the norms of the sport ethic
Hypotheses About Male Athletes’
Violence Against Women
Violence is related to
•Support for the belief that
women constitute “groupies” in sport worlds
•Collective HUBRIS and the
notion that outsiders do not deserve respect
•Institutional support for
elite athletes regardless of behavior
•Institutional failures to
hold athletes accountable for deviance
Learning to Control
Violence in Sports
Control may be learned if
nThe social
world formed around a sport promotes a mindset & norms emphasizing:
nNon-violence
nSelf-control
nRespect for
self and others
nPhysical
fitness
nPatience
Violence Is Most Likely When:
Sports are organized in ways that
nProduce HUBRIS
nSeparate
athletes from the community
nEncourage
athletes to think that others do not deserve their respect
Violence in Sports
& Gender Ideology
nDoing violence
in sports reproduces the belief that “men are superior to women”
nPower &
performance sports, when they encourage violence, emphasize difference between
men and women
nSports violence
reproduces an ideology of male entitlement
Violence Among Spectators
nNo data on how
watching sports may influence violence in everyday relationships
nSpectators at
non-contact sports have low rates of violence
nSpectators at
contact sports have rates of violence that constitute a problem in need of
analysis and control
nRates today are
lower than rates in the past
Celebratory Violence
This form of
violence has not been studied systematically by scholars in the sociology of
sport
General Factors Related to Violence at Sport Events
•Action in the sport event
itself
•Crowd dynamics & the
situation in which spectators watch the event
•Historical, social
economic, & political context in which the event is planned and played
Crowd Dynamics
& Situational Factors
üCrowd size
üComposition of
crowd
üMeaning
and importance of event
üHistory of
relationship between teams
üCrowd control
strategies at event
üAlcohol
consumption by spectators
üLocation of
event
üMotivations for
attending the event
üImportance of
teams as sources of identity for spectators
Controlling Crowd Violence
Be aware of the following factors:
•Perceived violence on the
field is positively related to crowd violence
•Crowd dynamics and
conditions
•Historical, social, &
political issues underlying spectator orientations
Gender and Sports:
Does Equity Require Ideological Changes?
Participation and Equity Issues
Participation by girls & women has increased
dramatically since the early 1980s due to:
zNew opportunities
zGovernment equal rights legislation
zGlobal women’s rights movement
zExpanding health & fitness movement
zIncreased media coverage of women’s sports
Reasons For Caution When
Predicting Future Participation (1-4)
zBudget cutbacks and the privatization of sport programs
zResistance to government regulations
zBacklash among those who resent strong women
zUnder representation of women in decision-making positions in sport programs
Reasons For Caution When
Predicting Future Participation (5-7)
zContinued emphasis on “cosmetic fitness”
zTrivialization of women’s sports
zHomophobia and the threat of being labeled “lesbian”
Gender and Fairness Issues
in Sports
zInequities in participation opportunities
yOften grounded in dominant definitions of femininity in a culture
yMay be related to religious beliefs
zEstablishing legal definitions of equity
zSupport for athletes
zJobs for women in coaching and administration
Legal Definitions:
Title IX in the
Title IX
requires compliance
with one of these three tests:
zThe proportionality test
üA 5 percentage point deviation is okay
zThe history of progress test
üJudged by actions & progress over past 3 years
zThe accommodation of interest test
üPrograms & teams meet the interests and abilities of the under represented sex
Title IX Categories of
Support for Athletes:
üAccess to facilities
üQuality of facilities
üAvailability of scholarships
üProgram operating expenses
üRecruiting budgets
üScheduling of games & practice times
üTravel and per diem expenses
üAcademic tutoring
üNumber of coaches
üSalaries for all staff and administrators
üMedical training services and facilities
üPublicity for players, teams, and events
Coaching and Administration: Reasons for Under
Representation
zWomen have fewer established connections in elite programs
zSubjective evaluative criteria used by search committees
zSupport systems & professional development opportunities for women have been scarce
Coaching and Administration: Reasons for Under
Representation
zMany women do not see spaces for them in corporate cultures of sport programs
zSport organizations are seldom sensitive to family responsibilities among coaches and administrators
zWomen may anticipate sexual harassment and more demanding standards than those used to judge men
Strategies to Promote
Gender Equity (1-4):
zConfront discrimination and be an advocate for women coaches and administrators
zBe an advocate of fair and open employment practices
zKeep data on gender equity
zLearn and educate others about the history of discrimination in sports and how to identify discrimination
Strategies to Promote
Gender Equity (5-9):
zInform media of unfair and discriminatory policies
zPackage women’s sports as revenue producers
zRecruit women athletes into coaching
zUse women’s hiring networks
zCreate a supportive climate for women in your organization
Cheerleaders: Reproducing Definitions of Femininity?
zCheerleading in the late 1800s was a male activity; it changed after World War II
zCheerleading today is a diverse phenomenon, but cheerleading sometimes is organized in ways that reproduce traditional gender logic
yBe attractive, and pure & wholesome
ySupport men as they work
yBe an emotional leader without receiving material rewards
Girls and Women
As Agents of Change
Sport participation can empower women
zBut this does not occur automatically
zBut personal empowerment is not necessarily associated with an awareness of the need for gender transformation in society as a whole
zBut elite athletes seldom are active agents of change when it comes to gender ideology
Why Elite Athletes Seldom Challenge Traditional Gender
Ideology
zWomen athletes often fear being tagged as ungrateful, “man-haters,” or “lesbians”
zCorporation-driven “celebrity-feminism” focuses on individualism and consumption, not everyday struggles related to gender
z“Empowerment discourses” in sports are tied to fitness and heterosexual attractiveness
zWomen athletes have little control or political voice in sports or society at large
Boys and Men
As Agents of Change
Gender equity also is a men’s issue:
zEquity
involves creating options for men to play sports not based exclusively on a
power and performance model
zEquity
emphasizes relationships based on cooperation rather than conquest and
domination
Changes in Gender Ideology: Prerequisites for Gender
Equity
Gender ideology is crucial because:
zGender
is a fundamental organizing principle of social life
zGender
logic influences how we
yThink
of self and other
yHow
we relate to others
yHow
we present ourselves
yHow
we think about and plan for our future
Gender Logic
Based on a
Two-category Classification System
zAssumes two mutually exclusive categories: heterosexual male and heterosexual female
zThese categories are perceived in terms of difference, and as “opposites”
zSystem leaves no space for those who do not fit into either of the two categories
zThe two categories are not equal when it comes to access to power
Sports:
Celebrations of Masculinity
zGender is not fixed in nature – therefore, people must work to maintain definitions
zSports are sites for preserving forms of gender logic that privilege men & marginalize women
zDominant sport forms highlight and reward virility, power, and toughness
zSport images and discourse glorify a heroic manhood based on being a warrior
Gender Logic in Sports:
Girls and Women As Invaders
zGirls and women in sports often threaten the preservation of traditional gender logic
zThrough history, myths have been used to discourage participation by girls and women
zEncouragement varies by sport, and whether the sport emphasizes grace or power
zBeing a “tomboy” is okay as long as traditional “femininity cues” are presented
Women Bodybuilders:
Expanding Definitions of Femininity?
zCompetitive bodybuilding for women did not exist before the 1970s
zWomen bodybuilders often are perceived as deviant in terms of gender definitions
zWomen bodybuilders challenge traditional definitions of gender, despite commercial images that highlight heterosexual attractiveness
zFemininity insignias are used to avoid social marginalization
Gender-based Double Standards:
Do They Exist in Sports?
What would happen if:
zMia Hamm beat up a man or a couple of women in a bar fight?
zA rugby team “mooned” tourists
in
zA basketball player had four children with four different men?
zAnna Kournikova was photographed with near naked men ogling and hanging on her?
Homophobia in Sports
zPopular discourse erases the existence of gay men and lesbians in sports
zGay men and lesbians challenge the two-category gender classification system
zBeing “out” in sports creates challenges
yWomen risk acceptance
yMen risk acceptance and physical safety
zMost people in sports hold a “Don’t ask, don’t tell” policy concerning homosexuality
Strategies for Changing
Ideology and Culture
There is a need for
zAlternative definitions of masculinity
üCritically question violent & destructive behavior
zAlternative definitions of femininity
üBecoming “like men” is not the goal
zChanging the ways we talk about & do sports
üLifetime participation, an ethic of care, gender equity, and bringing boys and girls and men and women together to share sport experiences
Race and Ethnicity:
Are They Important in Sports?
Defining Race & Ethnicity
nRace refers to a category of people regarded as socially distinct
nShare “genetic” traits believed to be important by those with power and influence in society
nAn ethnic group is a socially distinct population that shares a way of life
nCommitted to the ideas, norms, and things that constitute that way of life
Minority Group
Refers to a socially identified collection of people who
nExperience systematic discrimination
nSuffer social disadvantages because of discrimination
nPossess a self-consciousness based on their shared experiences
The Concept of Race
nRacial categories are social creations based on meanings given to selected physical traits
nRace is not a valid biological concept
nVerified by data from Human Genome Project
nRacial classifications ambiguous
nbecause they are based on continuous traits with arbitrary lines drawn to create categories
nRacial classifications vary from culture to culture
Race in the
nA primitive but powerful
classification system has been used in the
nIt is a two-category system based on the rule of hypo-descent or the “one-drop rule”
nThe rule was developed by white men to insure the “purity” of the “white race” and property control by white men
nMixed-race people challenge the validity of this socially influential way of defining race
Tiger Woods:
Disrupting Dominant Race Logic
CABLINASIAN
CA = Caucasian
BL = Black
IN = Indian
ASIAN = Asian
Using Critical Theory to Ask Questions About Racial Classification Systems
nWhich
classification systems are used?
nWho uses them?
nWhy are some people
so dedicated to using certain classification systems?
nWhat are the
consequences of usage?
nCan negative
consequences be minimized?
nCan the systems
be challenged?
nWhat occurs when systems change?
Race Logic in
History
Racial classification systems were developed as Caucasian
Europeans explored and colonized the globe
nThese systems were used to justify colonization, conversion, and even slavery and genocide
nAccording to these systems, white skin was the standard, and dark skin was associated with intellectual inferiority and arrested development
Race Logic in Sports Today
Race logic encourages people to
n“See” sport performances in racial terms, i.e., in terms of skin color
nUse whiteness as the taken-for-granted standard
nExplain the success or failure of people with dark skin in racial terms
nDo studies to “discover” racial difference
Traditional Race Logic
Used in Sports
Achievements of White Athletes are due to:
nCharacter
nCulture
nOrganization
Achievements of Black Athletes are due to:
nBiology
nNatural
physical abilities
Searching For ”Jumping Genes” in
Black Bodies
Why is the search misleading?
nBased on oversimplified ideas about genes and how they work
nAssumes that jumping is a simple physical activity related to a single gene or interrelated set of genes
nBegins with skin color and social definitions of race
A Sociological Hypothesis
Race logic + discrimination + sport opportunities
Beliefs about biological & cultural destiny
+
Motivation to develop skills
OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENTS
The Power of Race Logic
nBlack male students often have a difficult time shaking “athlete” labels based on race logic
nYoung people from all racial backgrounds may make choices influenced by race logic
nIn everyday life, race logic is related to the cultural logic of gender and social class
Sport Participation and
African Americans
The facts show that
nPrior to the 1950s, African Americans faced a segregated sport system
nAfrican Americans participate in a very limited range of sports
nAfrican American men and women are under represented in most sports
Sport Participation and
Native Americans
nNative Americans comprise dozens of diverse cultural groups
nTraditional Native American sports combine physical activities with ritual and ceremony
nNative Americans often fear losing their culture when they play Anglo sports
nStereotypes used in sports discourage Native American participation
Images of
Native Americans in Sports
nUsing stereotypes of Native Americans as a basis for team names, logos, and mascots is a form of bigotry
nregardless of the intentions
nAre there conditions under which a group or organizations could use the cultural and religious images of others for their own purposes?
nWhat would happen if a school named their teams the Olympians and used the Olympic logo (5-Rings) as their logo?
Sport Participation and
Latinos & Hispanics
nThe experiences of Latino athletes have been ignored until recently
nStereotypes about physical abilities have influenced perceptions of Latino athletes
nLatinos now make up 25% of Major League Baseball players
nLatinos often confront discrimination in school sports
nLatinos have been overlooked due to faulty generalizations about gender and culture
Sport Participation and
Asian Americans
nThe cultural heritage and histories of Asian Americans are very diverse
nThe sport participation patterns of Asian Americans vary with their immigration histories
nLittle is known about how the images of Asian American athletes are represented in the media and minds of people in the U.S.
The Dynamics of Racial & Ethnic Relations in Sports
nRace and ethnicity remain significant in sports today
nToday’s challenges are not the ones faced in the past
nRacial and ethnic issues DO NOT disappear when desegregation occurs
nThe challenge of dealing with inter-group relations never disappears
nchanges in terms of the issues that must be confronted
Eliminating Racial & Ethnic Exclusion in Sports (I)
Changes are most likely when
nPeople with power and control benefit from progressive changes
nIndividual performances can be measured precisely and objectively
nMembers of an entire team benefit from the achievements of teammates
Eliminating Racial & Ethnic Exclusion in Sports (II)
Changes are most likely when
nSuperior performances do not lead to automatic promotions
nTeam success does not depend on off-the-field friendships
The Biggest Challenge: Integrating Positions of Power
nPower in sports is not readily shared
nEven when sport participation is racially and ethnically mixed
nThe movement of minorities into coaching and administrative positions has been very slow
nSocial and legal pressures are still needed before power is fully shared
Needed Changes:
nRegular and direct confrontation
nof racial and ethnic issues by people in positions of power
nA new vocabulary
ndealing with new forms of racial and ethnic diversity
nTraining sessions dealing with practical problems and issues
nNot just feelings
The Racially
“Natural Athlete”?
nThere is no evidence showing that skin color is related to physical traits that are essential for athletic excellence across sports
nor in any particular sport
Socially Constructing the Black Male Body: Race Logic in Action
In Euro-American history there has been
nStrong fears of the physical power and prowess of (oppressed) black men
nPowerful anxieties about the sexual appetites and capabilities of (angry) black men
nDeep fascination with the movement of the black body
THEREFORE, the black male body =
valuable entertainment commodity
Research Summary
(Genetic Factors & Athletic Performance)
nAre there genetic differences between individuals? YES
nAre genetic characteristics related to athletic excellence? YES
nCould one gene
account for success across a range of different sports? PROBABLY NOT
nMight skin color genes & physical performance genes be connected? NO EVIDENCE
Research Summary (Continued)
nAre physical development & the expression of skills in sports related to cultural definitions of skin color and race? DEFINITELY YES
nDo cultural ideas about skin color & race influence the interpretation of and meaning given to the movement and achievements of athletes? DEFINITELY YES
Social Origins of
Athletic Excellence
nA cultural emphasis on achievement in activities that have special cultural meaning
nResources to support widespread participation among young people
nOpportunities to gain rewards through success
nAccess to those who can teach tactics and strategies
Consequences of
Race Logic in Sports
nDesegregation of revenue producing sports
nContinued racial exclusion in “social” sports
nPosition stacking in team sports
nRacialized interpretations of achievements
nManagement barriers for blacks
nSkewed distribution of African Americans in U.S. colleges and universities